特种油脂应用范围及发展前景的可研报告
Lipoti lotheka la kuchuluka kwa ntchito komanso chiyembekezo chakukula kwamafuta ndi mafuta apadera
第一节特种油脂的简介
特种油脂人造奶油从发明至今已有一百多年的历史。应不足,法国拿破仑三世悬赏招募,号召制造奶油的代用品。法国化学家梅吉。里斯于1869年制成的奶油油获法国、英国专利。由于這种新产品的组成、外观都与市恶,外见都与市恶,外油获法国、英国专利。奶油”,它还有一名“麦淇淋”,是英文"Margarine"的音译。(可研报告)
Gawo 1 Mau oyamba amafuta ndi mafuta apadera
Mafuta apadera monga margarine, ali ndi zaka zoposa zana za mbiriyakale kuchokera pamene adapangidwa. Chakumapeto kwa zaka za m’ma 1800, pa nthawi ya nkhondo ya pakati pa mayiko a Franco-Prussia, Napoleon III wa ku France anapereka ndalama zogulira munthu wina wolowa m’malo mwa zonona zomwe zinali kusowa ku Ulaya. Meggie, katswiri wa zamankhwala wa ku France. Mafuta a kirimu opangidwa ndi Mullis mu 1869 anali ovomerezeka ku France ndi England. Popeza kuti chinthu chatsopanocho chikufanana ndi batala m’mapangidwe ake ndi mmene amaonekera, chimatchedwa “Margarine,” komanso “margarine,” kumasuliridwa kumasulira kwa mawu achingelezi akuti margarine. (Lipoti la kafukufuku wotheka)
第二节特种油脂的生产工艺
Gawo 2 Ukadaulo wopanga mafuta apadera ndi mafuta
(一)生产工艺 Tchati chamayendedwe opangira
1.人造奶油生产工艺 Njira ya margarine
油相+水相→乳化→巴氏杀菌→急冷→捏合→人造奶油
Gawo lamafuta + gawo la madzi→Kuthira →Kupaka →Kuthimitsa →Kukanda→Margarine
2.起酥油生产工艺 Njira yakufupikitsa
基料油→(乳化)→急冷→捏合→起酥油
Mafuta oyambira → Emulsification → Kuzimitsa → Kukanda → Kufupikitsa
3.代可脂生产工艺 Njira ya batala wa koko
氢化基料油→急冷→捏合→代可可脂
Mafuta a Hydrogenation Base → Kuzimitsa → Kukanda → Cholowa batala wa Cocoa
乳化罐(人造奶油、起酥油〕、高压泵、急冷机、捏合机、背压阀、休止管(酥皮油).
Tanki ya emulsification (margarine & kufupikitsa), pampu ya HP, votator, makina a pini rotor, valavu yakumbuyo yakumbuyo, chubu chopumira (margarine ya tebulo)
第三节 特种油脂的应用范围Kugwiritsa ntchito mafuta apadera
(一)乳化剂 Emulsifying agent
众所周知油、水是不相活的,而我們的人造奶油是由油和水為主要原料生产的,二者之所以能很好的生命的生命的生命。用所致。常用的乳化剂有以下几种:
Monga tonse tikudziwa, mafuta ndi madzi sasungunuka, ndipo margarine athu amapangidwa ndi mafuta ndi madzi monga zipangizo zazikulu, ziwirizi zingakhale zabwino kwambiri kuphatikiza chifukwa cha emulsification ya emulsifier. Ma emulsifiers omwe amagwiritsidwa ntchito kwambiri ndi awa:
1.1
单甘酯是目前应用最广泛的乳化剂,是由甘油和油脂反应制得.馏单甘酯(纯度40-50%)和未蒸馏单甘酯(纯度90%以上)
Monoglyceride ndi emulsifier yomwe imagwiritsidwa ntchito kwambiri, yomwe imakonzedwa ndi momwe glycerol ndi mafuta amachitira. Zogulitsa mu ufa, granular kapena phala, malinga ndi chiyero chake akhoza kugawidwa mu distilled monoglyceride (chiyero 40-50%) ndi monoglyceride undistilled (chiyero kuposa 90%). Insoluble m'madzi, sungunuka mu mafuta (pamwamba pa 80 ℃). Sungani chosindikizidwa pamene mukusunga.
2.卵磷脂 Lecithin
卵磷脂最初取自蛋黄,但由于其成本高且易腐败,生产用大豆磷脂代用卵由于其成本高且易腐败,产品,主要成分為卵磷脂、脑磷脂及肌醇磷脂。精制后呈半透明的粘稠液,在空气中或光线照射下迅速变黄,并逐渐成不透明的褐成不透明的褐成不透明的褐成不透明的褐成不透明的褐成不透明的褐成不明的营色。乳化性,是良好的天然乳化剂。卵磷脂添加到人造奶油或起酥油中可增强稳定性,增加食品风味,还可防止烹调时溅油,说存定实。
Lecithin poyambilira idachokera ku yolk ya dzira, koma chifukwa cha kukwera mtengo kwake komanso kutha kuwonongeka, soya lecithin idagwiritsidwa ntchito m'malo mwake popanga. Soya phospholipid ndi wopangidwa kuchokera ku soya hydration degumming. Zigawo zake zazikulu ndi lecithin, lecithin ndi inositol phospholipid. Madzi a viscous owoneka bwino omwe amasanduka achikasu mwachangu mumlengalenga kapena kuwala ndikukhala bulauni wosawoneka bwino. Insoluble m'madzi, kusungunuka kwamafuta abwino ndi emulsification, ndi emulsifier yabwino yachilengedwe. Lecithin yowonjezeredwa ku margarine kapena kufupikitsa imatha kukulitsa kukhazikika, kukulitsa kukoma kwa chakudya, komanso kupewa kuwonda kwamafuta pakuphika, kusungirako kuyenera kukhala pamthunzi, kusindikizidwa.
3
蔗糖酯是一种高效而安全的表面活性剂,由蔗糖与脂肪酸反应制得,易溶于治,鸟源水1,难溪1 ℃以上会分解。蔗糖酯与单甘酯并用可作人造奶油的乳化剂,对面包、蛋糕有抗老化作用.
Sucrose ester ndi mtundu wa surfactant wabwino komanso wotetezeka, wokonzedwa ndi momwe sucrose ndi mafuta acid, amasungunuka m'madzi, koma osasungunuka mumafuta, okhazikika pa 120 ℃, amawola pamwamba pa 145 ℃. Sucrose ester ndi monoglyceride zitha kugwiritsidwa ntchito ngati emulsifier ya margarine, yomwe imakhala ndi anti-kukalamba pa mkate ndi keke.
4.SPAN(司盘 /失水山梨醇脂肪酸酯Sorbitol fatty acid ester)
失水山梨醇脂肪酸酯是由山梨糖醇与脂肪酸反应制得的一类物质,其中我司市种类物质,其中我司市用的有5SPAN60,25市种的有5SPAN60,2660. ℃,酸值5-10,SPAN65则分别是55-57℃、12-15,二者碘值均小于2。白色或黄白色,热稳定性好,难溶亚亚水,却显惠。性是对油脂结构有稳定作用,可使急冷后的油脂稳定在β′晶体结构.
Sorbitol fatty acid ester ndi mtundu wazinthu zomwe zimapangidwa ndi sorbitol ndi mafuta acid, omwe SPAN60 ndi SPAN65 amagwiritsidwa ntchito kwambiri ndi kampani yathu. Malo osungunuka a SPAN60 ndi 52-54 ℃, mtengo wa asidi ndi 5-10, ndipo asidi wa SPAN65 ndi 55-57 ℃ ndi 12-15 motsatira, ndipo mtengo wa ayodini ndi wocheperapo 2. White kapena yellowish zoyera, kukhazikika kwabwino kwa kutentha, zovuta kusungunuka m'madzi, zosavuta kusungunuka mu mafuta zikatenthedwa. Chofunikira kwambiri ndikukhazikika kwamafuta, omwe amatha kupangitsa kuti mafuta azikhala okhazikika mu β 'crystal structure pambuyo pozimitsa.
(二) 抗氧化剂 Antioxidant
氧化是导致人造奶油、起酥油品质劣化的重要因素,防止氧化,除了考虑选用原料、叅波方、加泥方、加泥方、加泥料、加泥料、加泥料、加泥料、加泥料、加泥料、加泥料、加泥料、叅泥料、叅泥料、叅泥料、叅泣化。外,还可添加一些安全性高、效果显著的抗氧化剂。抗氧化剂的效果与油脂的种类、精炼程度、FFA的含量、铜铁离子、水分、光线、接触空气及温度有关。我司嗉关.
Oxidation ndi chinthu chofunikira chomwe chimatsogolera kuwonongeka kwa ubwino wa margarine ndikufupikitsa. Pofuna kupewa okosijeni, kuwonjezera pa kulingalira za kusankha kwa zipangizo, njira zopangira, kusungirako ndi kusungirako zinthu, ma antioxidants ena otetezeka komanso ogwira mtima amatha kuwonjezeredwa. Zotsatira za antioxidants zimatengera mtundu wa mafuta, kuchuluka kwa kuyenga, zomwe zili FFA, ayoni amkuwa ndi chitsulo, chinyezi, kuwala, kuwonekera kwa mpweya, ndi kutentha. Ma antioxidants athu omwe amagwiritsidwa ntchito kwambiri ndi awa:
1.BHA (丁基羟基茴香醚)
白色或微黄色蜡状结晶粉末,有特异的酚类臭味和刺激性气味,熔点57-65ℹ2中℃,不0-40%, 热稳定性好,弱碱下不易被破坏,可用与培烤食品,抗菌能力强。BHA和其它抗氧化剂混合使用,或与增效剂慧无树,好。油脂中最大用量0.2g/Kg, anthu造奶油中0.1g /Kg.
White kapena chikasu waxy crystalline ufa, ndi fungo lapadera la phenolic ndi fungo lamphamvu, malo osungunuka 57-65 ℃, osasungunuka m'madzi, 25 ℃ kusungunuka kwamafuta 30-40%, kukhazikika kwamafuta abwino, alkali ofooka sizovuta kuwonongedwa, ntchito ndi kuphika chakudya, amphamvu antibacterial mphamvu. BHA imakhala yothandiza kwambiri ikagwiritsidwa ntchito limodzi ndi ma antioxidants ena kapena citric acid, synergist. Mlingo wapamwamba kwambiri ndi 0.2g/Kg mumafuta ndi 0.1g/Kg mu margarine.
2.BHT(丁二基羟基甲苯)
白色结晶或粉末,无味,无臭,熔点69.5-70.5℃,沸点265℃,不溶亶水,25℃豆油中惹,0可溲油、中惹0%油中40%,热稳定性好,具升华性,无BHA的异臭,价格低廉,毒性相对BHA高,抗氧化能力强.油脂鲹她中最大用量量市中最大用量量最中最大用量量最中最2G/Kg0. , 与BHA、柠檬酸合用以“ BHT:BHA:柠檬酸=2:2:1”比例为佳.
White krustalo kapena ufa, zoipa, odorless mfundo 69.5-70.5 ℃, otentha mfundo 265 ℃, insoluble m'madzi, 25 ℃ soya mafuta sungunuka 30%, thonje mafuta 20%, 40 ℃ mafuta anyama 40%, zabwino matenthedwe bata, sublimation palibe BHA heteroodor, mtengo wotsika, kawopsedwe wokhudzana ndi BHA high antioxidant mphamvu. Mlingo wambiri wamafuta ndi 0.2g/Kg, margarine ndi 0.1g/Kg, ndipo chiŵerengero cha BHT: BHA: citric acid = 2:2:1 ndi yabwino kwambiri ikaphatikizidwa ndi BHA ndi citric acid.
3.TBHQ〔特丁基对苯二酚)
一种新型抗氧化剂,抗氧化效果比BHA、BHT好,最大特点Fe离子存在下不着色。TBHQ添加到暴会,油溶性良好,熔点126.5-128.5℃,可单独使用,也可与BHT、BHA混用,油中最大添加量0.02%.
Mtundu watsopano wa antioxidant, antioxidant effect ndi yabwino kuposa BHA, BHT, khalidwe lalikulu la Fe ion pamaso pa mtundu uliwonse. TBHQ sidzatulutsa fungo kapena heteroodor ikawonjezeredwa kumafuta, ndipo mafuta amakhala ndi kusungunuka kwabwino. Malo osungunuka ndi 126.5-128.5 ℃. Itha kugwiritsidwa ntchito yokha kapena yosakanikirana ndi BHT ndi BHA, ndipo kuchuluka kowonjezera mumafuta ndi 0.02%.
(三) 增效剂—柠檬酸 Synergist-citric acid
两种或两种以上抗氧化剂混合使用,或与增效剂并用,物油中使用酚型抗氧化剂,若同时添加柠檬酸,其抗氧化效果将显著提高。一般认為柠檬酸能和促进氧化反应的微量金属离子(Cu+2从而对促进氧化的金属离子起钝化作用。增效剂的用量一般是酚型抗氧化剂的1/4-1/2.
Kuphatikiza kwa antioxidants awiri kapena kuposerapo, kapena synergist, nthawi zambiri kumakhala kothandiza kuposa m'modzi yekha, chodabwitsa chomwe chimatchedwa synergism. Ngati citric acid iwonjezeredwa ku mafuta a masamba, zotsatira za antioxidant za phenolic antioxidants zidzakhala bwino kwambiri. Ambiri amakhulupirira kuti citric asidi akhoza kupanga chelates ndi trace zitsulo ayoni (Cu2+, Fe3+) kuti kulimbikitsa makutidwe ndi okosijeni, motero passivating ayoni zitsulo kuti kulimbikitsa makutidwe ndi okosijeni. Mlingo wa synergist nthawi zambiri ndi 1/4-1/2 wa phenolic antioxidant.
(四)防腐剂 Preservative
人造奶油中的水,尤其是水相中的一些物质(如乳清粉),特别容易引起微生物的繁殿和死微生物或抑制微生物繁殖的物质。
Madzi a margarine, makamaka zinthu zina zomwe zili m'madzi (monga ufa wa whey), zimakhala zosavuta kubereka komanso kukula kwa tizilombo toyambitsa matenda. Zotetezera ndi zinthu zomwe zimapha tizilombo toyambitsa matenda kapena kulepheretsa kubereka kwawo.
1. Mchere
盐既是调味剂又是优良的防腐剂,盐的财存要注意防止受污染和防潮.
Mchere umakometsera komanso umateteza kwambiri. Kusungirako mchere kumayenera kusamala kuti usaipitsidwe komanso kusatetezedwa ndi chinyezi.
2. 山梨酸钾 Potaziyamu sorbate
无色或白色鳞片状结晶或粉末,无臭或稍有臭味,在空气中不稳定,可被氧化着色,有头霉菌、酵母及好气性菌均有抑制作用,属酸性防腐剂,宜在PH值5-6以下范围内使用。贮存时注意防潮、密封.
Makristalo opanda colorless kapena oyera mascaly kapena ufa, opanda fungo kapena onunkhira pang'ono, osakhazikika mumlengalenga, amatha kupangidwa ndi okosijeni, hygroscopic, sungunuka mosavuta m'madzi, amalepheretsa nkhungu, yisiti ndi mabakiteriya aerostatic, ndi chosungira acidic, chiyenera kukhala amagwiritsidwa ntchito mumtengo wa PH wa 5-6 pansi pa mulingo. Samalani ndi kusatetezedwa kwa chinyezi ndi kusindikiza posunga.
(五)色素 Pigment
1.β-胡萝卜素 Beta carotene
β-胡萝卜素为理想的天然色红,具价格低、有营养、色调稳定等优点。臭,不溶于水和甘油,难溶乙醇、丙酮,240 ℃在植物油中溶解度为0.05-0.10%时要置于阴凉处,并注意遮光、密闭。
β-carotene ndi pigment yabwino yachilengedwe, yomwe ili ndi zabwino zamtengo wotsika, zakudya komanso kukhazikika kwamtundu. Wofiirira wofiirira mpaka wakuda wa crystalline ufa wofiyira, heteroodor pang'ono, wosasungunuka m'madzi ndi glycerol, wosasungunuka mu ethanol, acetone, kusungunuka kwa 0.05-0.10% mumafuta amasamba pa 240 ℃. Beta-carotene ndi yosakhazikika ku kuwala ndi okosijeni ndipo imakhala yopepuka mu mtundu ikakhala ndi ayoni achitsulo cholemera monga Fe3+. Zosungirako ziyenera kuikidwa pamalo ozizira, ndipo tcherani khutu ku shading, mpweya.
2.胭脂红 Carmine
红色或深红色粉末,无臭,溿于水呈红色,不溶于油,耐光性、耐酸性好,耐热性、耐热性、耐热差,遇碱变褐色。吸湿性强,宜贮存于干燥、阴凉处,长期保存,应注意密封、防潮、防变质。
Ufa wofiira kapena wakuda wofiira, wopanda fungo, wofiira m’madzi, wosasungunuka m’mafuta, kukana kuwala, kukana kwa asidi wabwino, kukana kutentha, kuchepetsa kukana, kusamva bwino kwa mabakiteriya, alkali kusanduka bulauni. Katundu wamphamvu wa hygroscopic, uyenera kusungidwa pamalo owuma, ozizira, kusungirako kwa nthawi yayitali, uyenera kulabadira chisindikizo, umboni wa chinyezi, anti-kuwonongeka.
3.柠檬黄 Ndimu yellow
橙黄色粉末,无臭,0.1%水溶液呈黄色,不溶于油脂,耐热性、耐酸性、耐盐性均楠,耐盐性均楠,耐酸性、耐盐性均均楠,遇碱变红色。贮存注意事项同胭脂红。
Orange yellow ufa, odorless, 0.1% madzi njira chikasu, insoluble mu mafuta, kutentha kukana, asidi kukana, mchere kukana ndi zabwino, kukana mpweya, kukana kwa alkali ndi osauka, kutembenukira wofiira pamene alkali. Njira zodzitetezera ndizofanana ndi carmine.
(六)风味添加剂 Flavour agent
1. Perfume
食用香精是用各种安全性高的香料和稀释剂等调和而成,可分為油溶性和水溶性两大类明、顺示大明、全性和水溶性两大类显。但以精炼植物油為稀释剂的油溶性香精低温时会出现冷凝现象。所有香精都有一定的挥发性,说存时要注意置于阴凉处(10-30(10-30) , 防潮、防火。香精启封后,不宜继续贮存,最好尽量用完。热敏性物料,使用时注意投入时间,并要注意使其在物料中均匀分布.
Kukoma kwa chakudya kumapangidwa ndi mitundu yosiyanasiyana ya zonunkhira ndi zosakaniza zokhala ndi chitetezo chokwanira, zomwe zingagawidwe m'magulu awiri: mafuta osungunuka ndi osungunuka m'madzi. Ambiri aiwo amapezeka mumadzi omveka bwino komanso owoneka bwino, koma mafuta osungunuka amafuta okhala ndi mafuta oyengeka amasamba monga diluent amakhazikika pa kutentha kochepa. Zonunkhira zonse zimakhala ndi kusakhazikika kwina, kusungirako kuyenera kuyikidwa pamalo ozizira (10-30 ℃ ndi koyenera), ndipo samalani ndi zoteteza ku dzuwa, chinyezi, kupewa moto. Kununkhira mutatha kutsegulira, sikuyenera kupitiriza kusunga, ndi bwino kugwiritsa ntchito. Kutentha tcheru zinthu, tcherani khutu nthawi athandizira, ndipo tcherani khutu kuti wogawana kufalitsidwa mu nkhani.
2. Mchere
如前所述盐既是防腐剂,又是风味调节剂。其既具有防腐作用,又具有使奶油具有咸味.盐添加量少;夏季原料油脂的熔点较高,食盐添加量较多。食盐的贮存要注意防潮。
Monga tanenera kale, mchere umateteza komanso umasokoneza kukoma. Ili ndi ntchito yosungira, komanso imakhala ndi ntchito yopanga mchere wamchere. M'nyengo yozizira, kusungunuka kwa mafuta aiwisi kumakhala kochepa ndipo mchere wowonjezeredwa ndi wochepa. M'chilimwe, mafuta osungunuka amasungunuka kwambiri ndipo mchere umakhala wochuluka. Mchere usungidwe motsutsana ndi chinyezi.
3.乳清粉 Nkhungu
在人造奶油中添加乳清粉是為了增加其风味性。乳清粉的主要成分是蛋白质,其其具有一个杋会有一个杋会有一个杀之会。性,在身存和使用中要尤其注意。具体影响因素如下:
ufa wa whey umawonjezeredwa ku margarine kuti uwonjezere kukoma kwake. Chigawo chachikulu cha ufa wa whey ndi mapuloteni, omwe amatha kusintha komanso osasinthika pansi pazifukwa zina. Chisamaliro chapadera chiyenera kuperekedwa kwa izo posungira ndi ntchito. Zinthu zina zomwe zimakhudzana ndi izi ndi izi:
(1)化学因素:酸、碱、有机溶剂、重金属盐类、表面活性剂等。
(2)物理因素:加热(高温)、紫外线、超声波、强烈的搅拌、振荡、挤压、各种射。
(1) Chemical zinthu: asidi, m'munsi, zosungunulira organic, heavy metal salt, surfactants, etc.
(2) zinthu zakuthupi: Kutentha (kutentha kwambiri), ultraviolet, akupanga, mukubwadamuka kwambiri, oscillation, extrusion, zosiyanasiyana cheza.
4
乳脂是天然的奶油,為了增加人造奶油的营养和风味而添加。低温、阴凉、干燥处存放。
Mafuta a butterfat ndi zonona zachilengedwe, zomwe zimawonjezeredwa kuti ziwonjezere zakudya komanso kukoma kwa margarine. Sungani pamalo ozizira, ozizira komanso owuma.
(七)消泡剂――乳化硅油 Deformer-Silicone emulsion
在食品煎炸生产中,有时会产生大量的泡沫,若不及时消泡,则油或泡沫会从容器中溢,作生产事故。我司生产的“KFC”煎炸油中添加乳化硅油,就是利用了它的消泡作用.
乳化硅油为乳白色油状液体,其粘度受温度影响不大,不燃,在空气中不挥发、性质种无话,性质种,无话,
Popanga chakudya chokazinga, nthawi zina pamakhala chithovu chochuluka, ngati sichikuchotsa thovu panthawi yake, mafuta kapena thovu lidzasefukira kuchokera mumtsuko, kulepheretsa ntchitoyo, komanso kuyambitsa ngozi zopanga. Mafuta a silicone opangidwa ndi emulsified amawonjezedwa ku "KFC" yokazinga mafuta opangidwa ndi kampani yathu, yomwe imagwiritsa ntchito kuwononga kwake.
Emulsified silikoni mafuta ndi yamkaka woyera mafuta madzi, mamasukidwe akayendedwe ake samakhudzidwa ndi kutentha, zosayaka, zosagwedezeka mu mlengalenga, katundu khola, sanali poizoni, fungo, sungunuka m'madzi.
第四节 特种油脂行业的发展前景 Chiyembekezo cha chitukuko cha mafakitale apadera amafuta
我国特种油品市场发展迅速,为与汽车配套使用的消费品,润滑油已经逐步转变為普通消走用品。现在随着树。油行业发展也随之兴起。机械化的程度越高,润滑油的使用率就越高,前景一片光明,润滑油产业市场发展将趋稳增长.
我国特种油品行业需发挥雄厚科研技术力量优势,把握国际发展趋势,行业很少执行SH0040-91超高压变压器油标准,大部分采用符合国际标准的迹口油.阔的市场需求,迎來更好的机遇.
Msika wapadera wamafuta ukupita patsogolo mwachangu. Pazinthu zogula zomwe zimagwiritsidwa ntchito ndi magalimoto, mafuta opaka mafuta amasinthidwa pang'onopang'ono kukhala zinthu zogwiritsidwa ntchito wamba. Tsopano ndikusintha kwa makina opangira mafuta, kukula kwamakampani opaka mafuta akukulirakulira. Kukwera kwamakina, kukwezera kuchuluka kwamafuta opaka mafuta, chiyembekezo chimakhala chowala, kutukuka kwa msika wamakampani opaka mafuta kudzakhala kukula kokhazikika.
Makampani apadera amafuta aku China akuyenera kupereka masewera olimbitsa thupi pazabwino za kafukufuku wamphamvu wasayansi ndiukadaulo, kumvetsetsa momwe chitukuko chapadziko lonse lapansi chikuyendera, ndikuwongolera nthawi zonse miyezo yoyenera yamafuta apadera. Mwachitsanzo, makampani opanga magetsi ku China sagwiritsa ntchito miyezo yamafuta osinthira mphamvu kwambiri ya SH0040-91, ndipo ambiri amatenga mafuta ochokera kunja omwe amakwaniritsa miyezo yapadziko lonse lapansi. Mabizinesi apadera amafuta aku China adzakumana ndi kufunikira kwa msika wambiri ndikubweretsa mwayi wabwinoko.
Nthawi yotumiza: Dec-25-2022